The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in several categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. It is widely regarded as the most prestigious award in fields such as physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and peace. The prize was established by the will of Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist, engineer, and industrialist most famous for inventing dynamite. Since 1901, the Nobel Prizes have been awarded to individuals and organizations that have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind, as Nobel specified in his will.
Origins and Alfred Nobel’s Will
Alfred Nobel (1833–1896) held 355 patents, but his fortune came largely from his invention of dynamite in 1867 and from his ownership of the Swedish armaments company Bofors. In 1888, a French newspaper mistakenly published an obituary of Alfred Nobel under the headline “The merchant of death is dead,” condemning him for profiting from explosives. Whether or not this incident directly motivated him, Nobel rewrote his will in 1895, leaving the bulk of his estate to establish the prizes. He specified that the interest from his fortune should be divided into five equal parts and awarded to those who, during the preceding year, had conferred the greatest benefit to humankind: one part for physics, one for chemistry, one for physiology or medicine, one for literature, and one for peace. The will surprised many, as Nobel had given no public indication of such a plan. His family contested the will, and it took several years of legal and administrative work before the Nobel Foundation was established in 1900 and the first prizes were awarded in 1901.
The Six Prize Categories
Nobel’s will named five categories: physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace. A sixth category, economics, was added much later. In 1968, Sweden’s central bank (Sveriges Riksbank) donated funds to the Nobel Foundation to establish a prize in economic sciences in memory of Alfred Nobel. This prize is not a Nobel Prize in the strict sense, but it is presented at the same ceremony and is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Economics. Its official name is the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel. The original five categories remain the ones that Nobel explicitly designated, and the economics prize is a separate award, though it is administered by the same foundation.
How Winners Are Selected
Each prize is awarded by a different institution. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences selects the laureates for physics, chemistry, and economics. The Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm chooses the laureate in physiology or medicine. The Swedish Academy selects the literature laureate, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee, appointed by the Norwegian Parliament (Storting), awards the peace prize. The selection process is lengthy and secretive. Nominations are solicited from qualified individuals—such as previous laureates, university professors, and members of academies—who may submit names for consideration. Nominations are due by January 31 of the award year. Committees then review the nominations, consult experts, and narrow the field. In October, the winners are announced at press conferences in Stockholm and Oslo. The awards are presented on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel’s death, at ceremonies in Stockholm (for science, literature, and economics) and Oslo (for peace).
What Winners Receive
Each Nobel laureate receives three things: a gold medal, a diploma, and a cash award. The medal’s design varies by category, but all bear the image of Alfred Nobel. The diploma is a unique work of art created by Swedish and Norwegian artists and calligraphers, with a design that reflects the laureate’s achievement. The cash prize amount has varied over the years; in 2023, the prize amount was 11 million Swedish kronor (roughly 1 million USD). If a prize is shared by two or three laureates, the money is divided among them. The Nobel Foundation manages Alfred Nobel’s original fortune and invests it to generate income for the prize amounts and administrative costs. The foundation’s investment strategy has changed over time, but it remains the financial backbone of the awards.
Notable Rules and Limitations
The Nobel Prize has several rules that shape its history. A prize can be awarded to a maximum of three people per category, and the peace prize can also be awarded to an organization. No prize is awarded posthumously, except in rare circumstances: if a laureate dies after the announcement but before the ceremony, the prize is still presented. Also, a prize can be withheld if no worthy candidate is found; in such years, the prize money is retained for the following year. For example, the Nobel Prize in Literature was withheld several times, including during World War I and II, and the peace prize has been withheld 19 times. Since 1974, statutes have prevented awarding a prize to someone who has died, but the earlier rule allowed posthumous awards, such as the 1931 literature prize to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, who had died earlier that year. Another notable rule is that nominations are kept confidential for 50 years, so the full list of nominees is not publicly known until half a century later.
Common Misconceptions
One common misconception is that the Nobel Prize is a single prize. In reality, it is five (or six, counting economics) separate prizes with different selection committees and ceremonies. Another misconception is that Nobel’s will specified a prize for economics; it did not. The economics prize is a later addition funded by Sweden’s central bank. People also often believe that the peace prize is awarded in Stockholm; it is awarded in Oslo, Norway, a distinction that reflects the political union between Sweden and Norway at the time of Nobel’s death. Additionally, some think that the prize is always given for work done “the preceding year,” as Nobel’s will states, but in practice, the committees often recognize work that has stood the test of time, sometimes decades after the original discovery. For instance, the 2019 physics prize was awarded for the discovery of an exoplanet in 1995, and the 2020 physics prize honored work on black holes that was largely theoretical from the 1960s.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who can nominate someone for a Nobel Prize?
Nominations are not open to the public. Only individuals invited by the awarding institutions can submit nominations. These include members of the Swedish and Norwegian academies, previous laureates, professors at select universities, and other qualified scholars. The nominators are chosen by each prize committee, and their names are kept confidential for 50 years.
Why is there no Nobel Prize in mathematics?
Alfred Nobel’s will did not include mathematics, and no one knows for certain why. A popular myth claims that Nobel’s wife or lover left him for a mathematician, but this is unsubstantiated and widely considered false—Nobel never married. More likely, Nobel simply did not consider mathematics to be a field that conferred immediate practical benefit to humankind, as his will emphasizes practical discoveries and inventions.
Can the Nobel Prize be revoked?
No. Once awarded, a Nobel Prize cannot be revoked. The Nobel Foundation’s statutes state that decisions are final and cannot be appealed. Even if a laureate is later found to have committed fraud or a crime, the prize remains. This has happened in rare cases, such as the 2019 literature prize to Peter Handke, which drew criticism but was not revoked.
How many times has the Nobel Prize been won by the same person?
Four people have won two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie won physics in 1903 and chemistry in 1911. Linus Pauling won chemistry in 1954 and peace in 1962. John Bardeen won physics in 1956 and 1972. Frederick Sanger won chemistry in 1958 and 1980. The International Committee of the Red Cross has won the peace prize three times, in 1917, 1944, and 1963.
What happens if a prize is not awarded in a given year?
If the selection committee decides that no candidate meets the criteria, the prize is not awarded that year. The prize money is then reserved, and in some cases, it is added to the Nobel Foundation’s funds. This has happened most often for the peace prize and the literature prize, particularly during the world wars and in years when the committees found no deserving candidate.
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