The Mongol invasion of Japan was a pair of failed naval invasions launched by Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire against the Kamakura shogunate in 1274 and 1281, both of which were repelled with the aid of devastating typhoons that the Japanese called kamikaze (divine wind). These two campaigns were among the largest naval operations attempted in the pre-modern world, and their failure helped cement Japan’s independence and shaped its national identity for centuries.
Background: Kublai Khan’s Ambition
By the 1260s, the Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan, had conquered the largest contiguous land empire in history. Kublai Khan, Genghis’s grandson, had completed the conquest of China and established the Yuan dynasty in 1271. His ambition extended beyond the mainland: he sought to bring neighboring states, including Japan, into his sphere of influence. Japan at the time was ruled by the Kamakura shogunate, a military government headed by the Hōjō clan, with the emperor holding mostly ceremonial power. The shogunate had no diplomatic relations with the Mongols and was largely unaware of the threat until Kublai’s envoys arrived.
The First Invasion: 1274
In 1268, Kublai Khan sent letters to Japan demanding submission, threatening invasion if refused. The shogunate, under regent Hōjō Tokimune, ignored the demands, and Kublai sent more envoys over the next few years, all of whom were either ignored or sent back. In 1274, Kublai assembled a fleet of approximately 900 ships carrying an estimated 25,000 to 40,000 Mongol, Chinese, and Korean troops. The fleet departed from Korea and first captured the islands of Tsushima and Iki, then landed at Hakata Bay on the northern coast of Kyushu.
The Japanese defenders, though brave, were outmatched. The Mongols used gunpowder bombs (explosive projectiles), massed archery, and disciplined infantry formations, while the samurai preferred individual duels. The Japanese fought fiercely but were pushed back. As night fell, a storm—likely a typhoon—struck the bay, destroying a large portion of the Mongol fleet and forcing the invaders to retreat to their ships. The surviving fleet limped back to Korea, and the invasion ended in failure. Japanese chronicles attributed the storm to divine intervention, calling it the kamikaze.
The Second Invasion: 1281
Kublai Khan, furious at the failure, began preparing a much larger invasion. He demanded that Japan submit again, and when the shogunate again refused, he assembled a massive force. The plan called for two fleets: one of about 900 ships from Korea carrying 40,000 troops, and another of about 3,500 ships from southern China carrying 100,000 troops. The total force was likely around 140,000 men, making it one of the largest naval expeditions in history. The Korean fleet arrived first in June 1281 and landed at Hakata Bay, but the Japanese had built a two-meter-high stone wall along the coastline, which prevented the Mongols from using their cavalry effectively. The Chinese fleet arrived later, and the combined forces attempted to land at several points, but the Japanese defenders, now better prepared and using small boats to harass the enemy, held them off for weeks.
In August, a massive typhoon—again called kamikaze—struck the invasion fleet. The storm raged for two days, destroying most of the ships. Contemporary accounts say that over half of the Mongol force drowned or was killed by Japanese soldiers who attacked the survivors on shore. The invasion was utterly annihilated. Kublai Khan considered a third invasion but never launched one, largely due to the enormous cost and his own death in 1294.
Why Did the Typhoons Matter So Much?
The typhoons were decisive because the Mongol invasions relied entirely on naval supply lines. The Mongols were a land-based power; they had no tradition of naval warfare and depended on Korean and Chinese shipbuilders and sailors. The fleets were packed with troops, horses, and supplies, and the ships were not designed to withstand open-ocean typhoons. When the storms hit, the ships were anchored close to shore or in shallow bays, making them vulnerable to wind and waves. The Japanese, by contrast, fought on land and could retreat to their fortifications. The typhoons destroyed the invaders’ ability to resupply or retreat, turning a tactical stalemate into a total disaster.
Aftermath and Legacy
The failed invasions had profound consequences for Japan. The shogunate claimed victory as proof of divine favor, but the war effort had drained the treasury. The Hōjō regents were unable to reward the samurai who had fought, leading to discontent that eventually contributed to the shogunate’s collapse in 1333. The kamikaze became a central myth in Japanese culture, symbolizing the idea that Japan was protected by the gods. This myth was revived during World War II, when suicide pilots were named kamikaze in reference to the divine wind. In the broader Mongol Empire, the failure to conquer Japan marked the eastern limit of Mongol expansion and demonstrated the limits of their military power.
Common Misconceptions
One common misconception is that the Mongols were defeated solely by the typhoons. In reality, the Japanese defense, including the stone walls and the valor of the samurai, played a crucial role. The typhoons were the final blow, but the invasions were already failing due to logistical problems and stiff resistance. Another misconception is that the invasions were a single event; they were two distinct campaigns separated by seven years. Also, the term kamikaze was not used in the 13th century; it was coined later, in the 19th century, to describe the legendary storms. The original Japanese texts refer to the storms as kaze (wind) or shinpū (divine wind), but the specific term kamikaze became popular in the Meiji era.
Frequently Asked Questions
Did the Mongol invasions actually happen?
Yes, they are well-documented in both Japanese and Chinese/Korean sources. The Japanese Hachiman Gudōkun and the Mongol/Yuan official histories record the invasions, and archaeological evidence, including the stone walls at Hakata Bay and underwater shipwrecks, confirms the events.
How many ships did the Mongols use?
Estimates vary. For the first invasion, sources say around 900 ships. For the second, the Korean fleet had about 900 ships and the Chinese fleet about 3,500, though these numbers may be exaggerated. Modern historians suggest the total was likely around 4,400 ships for the second invasion.
Why didn’t the Mongols try a third invasion?
Kublai Khan planned a third invasion but faced several obstacles: the enormous cost of the failed expeditions, rebellions in Vietnam and other parts of the empire, and his own declining health. He died in 1294, and his successors had no interest in renewing the campaign.
What was the stone wall the Japanese built?
After the first invasion, the shogunate ordered the construction of a defensive wall along the coast of Hakata Bay. It was about two meters high and several kilometers long, made of stone and earth. The wall prevented Mongol cavalry from landing and forced the invaders to fight in narrow, confined areas, which neutralized their advantage in mobility.
Did the typhoons actually save Japan?
They played a decisive role, but the Japanese military resistance was equally important. The typhoons destroyed the Mongol fleets, but the invasions were already stalled due to the walls and the fighting. Without the storms, the Mongols might have eventually withdrawn or been repelled, but the typhoons sealed their fate.
Are there any surviving artifacts from the invasions?
Yes. Underwater archaeologists have found Mongol shipwrecks, anchors, and weapons in Imari Bay near Takashima Island. In 2011, a shipwreck believed to be from the second invasion was discovered, and many artifacts are displayed in museums in Japan.
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