A coup d’état is the sudden, illegal seizure of state power, usually by a small group within the military or government, through force or the threat of force. It is not a popular uprising or a revolution; it is a top-down takeover that replaces the existing leadership, often in a matter of hours.
What Exactly Counts as a Coup?
The term comes from French, meaning “blow of state,” and it has a precise meaning in political science. A coup is distinguished from other forms of regime change by three features: it is illegal under the country’s own laws, it is carried out by insiders (military officers, party officials, or security forces), and it is sudden. The target is usually the executive—the president, prime minister, or monarch—and the plotters aim to install their own leader or junta. A classic example is the 1973 Chilean coup, where General Augusto Pinochet overthrew the elected president Salvador Allende with military force. In contrast, the 1989 fall of the Berlin Wall was not a coup; it was a popular movement that pressured the government, even though the East German leadership did change afterward.
How Coups Usually Happen
Most coups follow a recognizable pattern, though each has its own local triggers. The process typically involves:
- Discontent within the military or ruling party—often over pay, promotions, or political interference.
- A trigger event, such as a disputed election, a constitutional crisis, or a leader’s attempt to extend their term.
- Seizure of key infrastructure: radio or TV stations, airports, government buildings, and the presidential palace.
- Detention or exile of the current leader, sometimes with violence.
- A public announcement claiming the military has “restored order” or “saved the nation.”
Not all coups are violent. The 1991 Soviet coup attempt involved tanks in Moscow, but the 2016 coup in Turkey was also violent. In contrast, the 2014 coup in Thailand was largely bloodless, with the army announcing martial law and detaining political leaders without major clashes. The speed is what makes a coup distinct: it is over in days, not months.
Types of Coups
Political scientists divide coups into several categories based on who leads them and what they intend to do.
- Military coup: The armed forces take power directly, often forming a junta. Example: the 1960 Turkish coup, led by a group of officers who later handed power back to civilians.
- Self-coup (autogolpe): The elected leader uses force to dissolve parliament and rule by decree. Example: Alberto Fujimori in Peru in 1992, who shut down Congress with military backing.
- Palace coup: A small group within the ruling elite removes the leader without mass involvement. Example: the 1973 overthrow of Afghanistan’s King Zahir Shah by his cousin, Mohammed Daoud Khan.
- Bloodless coup: No significant violence. Example: the 1980 coup in Suriname, where the military arrested the prime minister without a shot fired.
Some scholars also distinguish between “guardian” coups (aimed at restoring order) and “self-serving” coups (aimed at personal power), but the line is often blurry in practice.
Why Coups Happen: Common Causes
Coups are rarely spontaneous. They tend to occur when a country has weak institutions, economic crises, or a history of military involvement in politics. Key drivers include:
- Economic collapse: hyperinflation or mass unemployment erodes public trust and gives the military a pretext to act.
- Political polarization: when elections are widely seen as rigged, the military may claim it is intervening to “save democracy.”
- Personal ambition: officers may fear losing their privileges or being prosecuted for past abuses.
- External influence: foreign powers have sometimes encouraged coups, as in the 1953 Iranian coup, where the US and UK backed the overthrow of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh.
- Weak civilian control: if the military sees itself as above the law, it is more likely to intervene.
It is important to note that coups are more common in some regions than others. Africa has seen the most since the 1950s, with over 200 attempted or successful coups. Latin America also had many during the Cold War, often with US backing against leftist governments.
Consequences and International Response
The aftermath of a coup depends on how the international community reacts. Usually, the UN, the African Union, and regional bodies like the Organization of American States condemn the takeover and demand a return to constitutional order. They may impose sanctions, suspend aid, or expel the country from regional organizations. For example, after the 2021 coup in Myanmar, the UN and Western nations imposed sanctions and the country was suspended from ASEAN. However, some coups gain recognition if the new regime quickly holds elections or if major powers have strategic interests. The 2013 coup in Egypt, which removed President Mohamed Morsi, was not labeled a coup by the US government, partly because of military aid agreements—a controversial decision that showed how politics can override legal definitions.
Coups vs. Revolutions: Key Differences
People often confuse coups with revolutions, but they are fundamentally different. A revolution is a mass movement from below, often involving large-scale social change, like the French Revolution of 1789 or the Russian Revolution of 1917. A coup is a small, elite action that changes the leadership but usually leaves the social and economic system intact. For example, the 2011 Egyptian revolution was a popular uprising that toppled Hosni Mubarak, but the 2013 coup that removed Morsi was a military seizure of power. The two events had opposite dynamics: one was bottom-up, the other top-down. Revolutions can take years to unfold; coups are sudden by definition.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is a coup always illegal?
Yes, by definition a coup is illegal under the existing constitution. However, the new regime may later pass laws to legitimize itself. For example, the 1967 Greek military junta held a rigged referendum to approve a new constitution, but the initial seizure of power was still a violation of the previous legal order.
Can a coup be justified?
Some argue that a coup can be justified if it removes a brutal dictator or prevents a greater evil, such as a genocide. The 2011 military intervention in Egypt was seen by some as a corrective to Morsi’s authoritarian drift, but others saw it as a democracy’s destruction. There is no consensus; it depends on one’s ethical framework and view of the specific situation.
What is a “soft coup”?
A soft coup is a takeover that uses legal or quasi-legal means rather than overt force. It might involve the legislature voting to remove the president on dubious charges, or the judiciary disqualifying the opposition. The 2016 impeachment of Dilma Rousseff in Brazil was called a “soft coup” by her supporters, though the government insisted it was constitutional.
How often do coups succeed?
Success rates vary, but studies of the post-1950 period suggest that about half of all coup attempts succeed. Many fail because the military is divided, or because the leader has loyal troops. The 1991 Soviet coup failed largely because the military refused to fire on civilians and the plotters lost nerve.
What is the difference between a coup and a putsch?
They are synonyms. “Putsch” comes from German and is often used for a small, failed uprising, like the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch led by Adolf Hitler. But in political science, the terms are interchangeable.
Notable Historical Coups
To understand coups, it helps to look at concrete examples beyond those already mentioned.
- Chile, 1973: General Augusto Pinochet overthrew President Salvador Allende with US support. Allende died during the attack on the presidential palace.
- Indonesia, 1965: General Suharto took power from President Sukarno following an alleged communist coup attempt. The aftermath led to mass killings of suspected communists.
- Nigeria, 1966: A group of Igbo officers staged a coup that killed several politicians, leading to a counter-coup and eventually the Biafran War.
- Portugal, 1974: The Carnation Revolution was a military coup that ended the authoritarian Estado Novo regime and led to democracy.
- Mali, 2021: Colonel Assimi Goita led a second coup in nine months, ousting the interim president. The international community condemned it, but the junta remained in power.
These examples show that coups can have wildly different outcomes—from brutal dictatorships to transitions to democracy. The label “coup” does not predict what comes next.
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