Yes, China has national heroes, and the concept is central to its modern identity. The Chinese government and public recognize a specific pantheon of historical and revolutionary figures who are celebrated for their contributions to national unity, sovereignty, and the founding of the People’s Republic of China.
Defining a National Hero in China
In Chinese discourse, a national hero (民族英雄, mínzú yīngxióng) is not simply a famous person. The term is reserved for individuals who are seen as having made extraordinary sacrifices to protect the nation from foreign invasion, to unify the country, or to advance the cause of the Chinese people. The modern official narrative, promoted by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), emphasizes heroes who contributed to the revolution and the establishment of the PRC in 1949. However, the category also includes figures from earlier dynastic periods who fought against foreign powers, such as Yue Fei and Qi Jiguang, whose stories are taught in schools and celebrated in popular culture.
Historical Figures: From Yue Fei to Lin Zexu
The most widely cited historical national heroes include:
- Yue Fei (1103–1142): A general of the Southern Song dynasty who fought against the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty. His loyalty and eventual execution on false charges made him a symbol of patriotism and tragic virtue.
- Qi Jiguang (1528–1588): A Ming dynasty general who organized local militias to repel Japanese pirates (wokou) along the southeastern coast. His military innovations and discipline are still studied.
- Lin Zexu (1785–1850): A Qing official who destroyed opium stocks in Canton (Guangzhou) in 1839, leading directly to the First Opium War. He is celebrated as a defender of national dignity against foreign drug trade.
- Zheng Chenggong (1624–1662): Known as Koxinga, he expelled the Dutch from Taiwan in 1662 and is revered as a hero who restored Chinese control over the island.
These figures are often invoked in contemporary political rhetoric to emphasize territorial integrity and resistance to foreign pressure. Their stories are dramatized in films, TV series, and museum exhibits.
Revolutionary Heroes: The CCP’s Martyrs
In the modern PRC, the most prominent national heroes are the revolutionaries who founded the Communist state. The official narrative centers on figures like Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Zhu De, but the category also includes countless unnamed soldiers and civilians who died in the Long March (1934–1935), the War of Resistance Against Japan (1937–1945), and the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949).
The government has institutionalized this reverence through:
- The Martyrs’ Day (烈士纪念日) on September 30, established in 2014, when leaders lay wreaths at the Monument to the People’s Heroes in Tiananmen Square.
- The National Heroes and Models recognition system, which awards titles like “People’s Hero” to living individuals who make extraordinary contributions to national development, such as scientists, athletes, and military personnel.
- The 100 Heroes and Model Figures who Made Outstanding Contributions to the Founding of New China, a list published in 2009 that includes both revolutionaries and cultural figures.
A notable recent example is Zhong Nanshan, a pulmonologist who became a public hero during the COVID-19 pandemic for his role in advising the government and his outspoken early warnings. He was awarded the Medal of the Republic in 2020.
How Heroes Are Chosen and Honored
The selection of national heroes is not a democratic process. It is managed by the CCP’s propaganda and organizational departments, often through the Ministry of Veterans Affairs and the Central Propaganda Department. The criteria emphasize:
- Loyalty to the Party and the state.
- Sacrifice for national interests over personal gain.
- Contribution to socialist construction or national defense.
- Moral exemplarity that can inspire the public.
Honors include state funerals, memorial halls, statues, and naming streets or schools after the heroes. For example, the Yue Fei Temple in Hangzhou and the Memorial Hall of the Victims of the Nanjing Massacre serve as sites of patriotic education.
Controversies and Changing Perceptions
The official list of heroes is not static, and some figures have been re-evaluated. For instance, the Qing dynasty official Zeng Guofan was once condemned as a traitor for suppressing the Taiping Rebellion, but in recent years he has been rehabilitated as a model of Confucian self-cultivation and statecraft. Similarly, the status of historical figures like Cao Cao (a warlord of the Three Kingdoms) has fluctuated between villain and hero depending on the political climate.
Another controversy involves the treatment of heroes from non-Han ethnic groups. The official narrative emphasizes the unity of the Chinese nation (中华民族), but some ethnic minority figures, such as the Mongol leader Genghis Khan, are celebrated in Mongolia but not officially as Chinese national heroes. The government’s approach is to promote a multi-ethnic national identity, but this is sometimes contested by regional or ethnic nationalisms.
Comparison with Other Countries’ Heroes
Unlike the United States, where heroes like George Washington and Abraham Lincoln are celebrated through a mix of civic religion and popular culture, Chinese heroes are more explicitly tied to the ruling party’s legitimacy. In Russia, heroes like Alexander Nevsky and Georgy Zhukov serve similar functions of military and patriotic inspiration, but the Russian state does not have the same institutionalized system of martyr commemoration. In Japan, the Yasukuni Shrine controversy shows how hero veneration can become a diplomatic flashpoint, whereas China’s hero cult is largely domestic and does not provoke the same international backlash, except when it involves territorial claims (e.g., in the South China Sea).
Common Misconceptions
One common misconception is that all Chinese national heroes are military figures. In reality, the category includes scientists like Qian Xuesen (the father of China’s space program), athletes like Liu Xiang (a hurdler), and even fictional characters like Lei Feng, a soldier who was the subject of a massive propaganda campaign after his death in 1962. Lei Feng’s diary, which extolled selfless service, became a mandatory text for schoolchildren. Another misconception is that hero worship is a relic of the Mao era. On the contrary, the government has intensified hero commemoration since 2012 under Xi Jinping, who has called for “respecting heroes and martyrs” as part of a broader campaign to strengthen national confidence.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who is the most famous Chinese national hero?
Mao Zedong is arguably the most famous, as he is the founding leader of the PRC and his portrait hangs in Tiananmen Square. However, among historical figures, Yue Fei is the most iconic, with a temple in Hangzhou and a well-known poem, “Man Jiang Hong” (满江红), attributed to him.
Are there female national heroes?
Yes. The most prominent is Hua Mulan, a legendary woman who disguised herself as a man to take her father’s place in the army. While her historicity is debated, she is celebrated in the official narrative as a symbol of filial piety and courage. Other female heroes include revolutionary martyrs like Zhao Yiman, who was executed by the Japanese in 1936.
Why is Yue Fei considered a hero if he fought against another Chinese dynasty?
Yue Fei fought against the Jurchen Jin dynasty, which was not Han Chinese. In modern Chinese nationalism, his resistance is framed as defending the “Chinese” people against foreign invaders, even though the Song and Jin were both within what is now China. This reflects the modern concept of the Chinese nation as a multi-ethnic entity, but it also simplifies a complex historical period.
Can a living person become a national hero?
Yes. The Medal of the Republic (共和国勋章) is awarded to living individuals for extraordinary contributions. Recent recipients include Tu Youyou, a Nobel Prize-winning scientist, and Zhong Nanshan. However, the title is rare and highly selective.
Is it illegal to disrespect national heroes in China?
Yes. The Heroes and Martyrs Protection Law, effective from 2018, criminalizes the distortion or defamation of the deeds and spirit of heroes and martyrs. Violators can face fines or up to three years in prison. This law has been used in several high-profile cases, including a lawsuit against a blogger who mocked the martyr Qiu Shaoyun.
Are there any heroes who are not officially recognized?
Yes. Some regional or ethnic heroes, such as the Uyghur poet Yusuf Khass Hajib or the Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo, are celebrated locally but do not feature prominently in the national pantheon. The official narrative tends to prioritize figures who contributed to the unity of the modern Chinese state.
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